Essay - The History of Surgery Had Been Started from the Prehistoric...

The History of Surgery had been started from the prehistoric time with its appropriate technique and tools applicable during the age. There was no sophisticated care of hygiene ***** anatomic k*****wledge in ***** early days; the basic research was started us*****g trial and error on every case and it had set a very strong b*****sic which still makes sense and counts into modern practice.

The following summary of history ***** surgery is compiled from various sources based on the timeline set in dr. Schell's lecture: The H*****tory of *****.

*****. ***** Ancient Medic*****e (Prehistoric Time)

People had str*****g magic beliefs ***** connection to multiple gods during the ***** time, so that any cases of illness were also believed as the punishments from angry gods for community's or one's moral failure. Some common cases recorded ***** respiratory and digestive problems, infections, and gynecologic disorders. Life expectancy low, then 28-35 years was a successful range ***** survival. Cancer and degenerative diseases were not relevant at that time.

The early surgery practice in Europe was trepanation, drilling a hole in the head. Evidences found skulls ***** ********** from the Neolithic European ages, about 7000 years ago. Since supernatural beliefs ***** very strong, ***** cranial ***** was also intended to get rid of evil spirits; the only possible causes for psychosis, mental illness, epilepsy and headaches or migraines.

This is how it works; a p*****rt of frontal, parietal, or occip*****al bones of the skull is removed, ***** expose the dura mater, the tough fibrous membrane ********** the outer envelope of the brain. ("Trephination, An *****cient Surgery").

Still with the magical practices, they also applied other medical actions such as blood letting out ***** the body and finger amputations to get ***** of ***** wicked spirits.

However, ***** its development, trephining was found effective during the war. Lawson (2001) discussed that Neolithic wars used a lot of blunt weapons like sling stones and clubs. Such weapons ***** aimed at the head, resulting severe bleeding and ***** clots in the cranial arteries. Ano*****r case ***** cranium fractures required victims (soldiers) to have an oper*****ion.

This is how, as archaeologists said, the surgeons needed to do the trepanation "to remove splinters of skull bone," creating a way for the blood to let ***** ***** "relieve pressure from blood ***** ***** formed when blood vessels were broken."

Nei*****r sophisticated ***** method nor well-trained ***** presented during the war. All the processes had ***** run through trial and *****, since little was known about human anatomy. Lawson fur*****r explained, variety of techniques was *****. In South America, first people used obsidian, a kind ***** volcanic rock, which later upgraded ***** bronze instruments after the discovery of metal.

Charlotte Roberts of University of Durham, England, as told by ***** explained that surgeons would scrap the ***** and remove the layers of bone until breaking through to the brain; or until exposing the dura mater.

***** "Trephination," it is *****; ***** drill ***** bore into the skull is hard and smooth